Who said “there is no ‘I’ in team”? The effects of observational learning content level on efficacy beliefs in groups

Objectives: To investigate the effects of individual-level observational learning (OL_INDV), team-level observational learning (OL_TEAM), and multi-level observational learning (OL_MULTI) on efficacy beliefs, task cohesion, and performance across three studies in sports teams. Design: Cross-sectional, experimental and single-case designs were employed across the three studies, respectively. Method: Study 1 used a cross-sectional design to explore the predictive relationship between OL_INDV and OL_TEAM use, and collective efficacy and task cohesion in 210 team sports athletes. Study 2 used a repeated-measures experimental design to compare effects of OL_INDV versus OL_TEAM interventions on collective and self-efficacy in two soccer teams. Study 3 used a single-case A-A-B-B design to assess the effectiveness of OL_MULTI interventions on self-efficacy, collective efficacy, task cohesion and performance in an elite age-grade rugby union team across a competitive season. Results: In study 1, both OL_INDV and OL_TEAM use predicted collective efficacy, but only OL_TEAM use predicted task dimensions of cohesion. In study 2, collective efficacy increased for both the OL_INDV and OL_TEAM interventions while self-efficacy increased only for the OL_INDV intervention. In study 3, visual and effect size analyses indicated increased self-efficacy, collective efficacy task cohesion, and performance for the team during the off- and in-season intervention phases where the OL_MULTI interventions were administered alongside usual sporting involvement (training sessions and/or competitive fixtures). Conclusions: The novel findings of this investigation show that OL_INDV, OL_TEAM and OL_MULTI interventions can enhance efficacy beliefs in practical contexts and warrant application in groups across domains.