Goal-setting effects in elite and nonelite boxers

Using a goal-setting model (Burton, Naylor, & Holliday, 2001), the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a goal-setting intervention upon performance as a function of skill level. A multiple-baseline across-individuals single subject design was employed with 3 elite and 3 nonelite male boxers aged between 15-17 years (M = 16; SD = 1). Selfgenerated performance behaviors, competition outcome, competitive anxiety intensity and direction, and self-confidence were measured across a competitive season (10-fight period). Retention was also examined following treatment withdrawal (2-fight period). During and after the goal program was completed, the elite participants displayed consistent improvements in targeted behaviors, more facilitative interpretations of anxiety symptoms, and greater selfconfidence, whereas the nonelite revealed inconsistent patterns. Postintervention, five out of the six boxers showed improvement in the percentage of fights won. The results highlight the diverse effects of goal-setting for different populations, with social validation data suggesting potential mechanism via the goal-setting model employed and changes to attentional focus.